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A Riemann sum is an approximation of an integral by a finite sum, using shapes (rectangles, trapezoids, parabolas, or cubics) that partition the region. Learn about the types of Riemann sums (left, right, midpoint, upper, lower) and how they are related to the Riemann integral.
TCID 50 (50% Tissue Culture Infectious Dose) assay is a method to measure infectious virus titer by determining the amount of virus required to kill 50% of infected hosts or to produce a cytopathic effect in 50% of inoculated tissue culture cells. Learn how TCID 50 assay is performed, how it differs from plaque assay and focus forming assay, and how it relates to PFU (plaque forming units).
A hazard ratio (HR) is the ratio of the hazard rates of two groups in survival analysis, indicating the effect of a treatment or a covariate on the outcome. Learn how HRs are derived, interpreted and tested, and how they differ from relative risks and odds ratios.
Learn about the definition, risk factors, and therapeutic interventions for major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), a composite endpoint frequently used in cardiovascular research. Compare different studies and their criteria for MACE and their implications for clinical trials.
The equivalence point of a chemical reaction is the point at which chemically equivalent quantities of reactants have been mixed. Learn about different methods to determine the equivalence point, such as pH indicator, conductance, color change, precipitation, calorimetry, and spectroscopy.
A clinical endpoint is an outcome measure in clinical research trials, such as disease, symptom, sign or laboratory abnormality. Learn about different types of clinical endpoints, such as primary, secondary, surrogate, humane and combined endpoints, and their examples.
An interval is a set of real numbers lying between two fixed endpoints with no gaps. Learn the definitions, types, notation, and examples of intervals in mathematics.
Titration is a method of quantitative chemical analysis to determine the concentration of an analyte by reacting it with a standard solution of titrant. Learn about the history, etymology, procedure, preparation techniques and types of titrations, such as acid–base and redox titrations.
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